{"id":20382,"date":"2023-07-21T17:41:05","date_gmt":"2023-07-22T01:41:05","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/tesl-ej.org\/wordpress\/?page_id=20382"},"modified":"2023-07-22T20:41:41","modified_gmt":"2023-07-23T04:41:41","slug":"ej106s2","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/tesl-ej.org\/wordpress\/issues\/volume27\/ej106\/ej106s2\/","title":{"rendered":"Cognition-in-interaction: A Discursive Psychological Perspective of Novice Language Teacher Cognition"},"content":{"rendered":"

August 2023 – Volume 27, Number 2<\/h2>\n

https:\/\/doi.org\/10.55593\/ej.27106s2<\/strong><\/p>\n

Li Li<\/strong>
\nUniversity of Exeter
\n<li.li\"atmark\"exeter.ac.uk><\/p>\n

Abstract<\/h3>\n

Teacher cognition has been an important agenda of language teacher education in recent decades, and it has advanced the field\u2019s understanding of L2 teachers\u2019 work. Thus far, language teacher cognition has been understood from different epistemological perspectives and researched with different methodological approaches. Given that teacher cognition is social and situational, more research is needed from an emic perspective to understand how teachers develop and renew their cognitions in their professional context. This paper adopts a discursive psychological perspective on teacher cognition, investigating novice teacher cognition using applied conversation analysis. As part of a more extensive study, the study offers an in-depth analysis of novice Chinese EFL teachers\u2019 thinking, knowing, understanding, conceptualising, and stance-taking regarding language teaching. The teachers were recruited through a combination of convenience and snowball sampling strategies. The dataset includes 330 minutes of classroom teaching, 217 minutes of interviews, and 605 minutes of video-based guided reflection on teaching. The data revealed the key theme in teachers\u2019 understanding of 1) focusing on linguistic knowledge, 2) establishing teacher authority, and 3) developing practical pedagogical knowledge. The findings reveal teachers\u2019 moment-by-moment cognition-in-interaction and multiple roles in facilitating learning. Substantial implications are put forward for teacher learning and teacher education.<\/p>\n

Keywords<\/em><\/strong>: teacher cognition; discursive psychology; EFL classroom; conversation analysis; teacher knowledge<\/p>\n

Teacher cognition is an important agenda in (second) language teacher education; as Johnson (2006, p. 236) rightly pointed out, \u201c[M]any factors have advanced the field’s understanding of L2 teachers’ work, but none is more significant than the emergence of a substantial body of research now referred to as teacher cognition\u201d. However, despite the flourishing research in language teacher cognition, insufficient knowledge is there regarding novice teachers\u2019 conceptualisation, understanding, beliefs, and knowledge. Among the limited studies, several studies shed light on the importance of studying novice teachers’ knowledge and beliefs (e.g., Kang & Cheng, 2013; Kumazawa, 2013; Xu, 2013; Zhang & Zhang, 2020), and particularly what we could learn about teaching expertise by comparing novice and expert teachers (Gatbonton, 2008; Li, 2017; Sun & Zhang, 2022; Tsui, 2003).<\/p>\n

Thus far, language teacher cognition has been understood from different epistemological perspectives and researched with different methodological approaches, such as cognitive perspective, interactionist perspective, discursive psychological perspective, and sociocultural perspective (Li, 2017; 2020a). Despite the differences in the current research, the consensus is that the impact of teacher cognition not only sheds light on the issues in developing effective pedagogy and improving student learning but also promotes understanding of classroom instruction at a micro-level and teacher learning (Li, 2017). This paper adopts a discursive psychological perspective on teacher cognition in investigating novice teacher cognition using applied conversation analysis. From a discursive psychological perspective, teacher cognition is defined as \u2018cognition-in-interaction\u2019 to differentiate it from the cognitive view that cognition is fixed and stable across situations (Li, 2017). Thus, cognition-in-interaction is a special kind of psychological reality\u2014not defined by the mental state or process but by the participants orienting practically in an ongoing interaction following the rules for turn-taking. The focus, therefore, is placed on understanding the teacher’s cognition of moments in situ and how their distributed cognition is publicly displayed and negotiated.<\/p>\n

It is important to acknowledge at the outset that novice teachers may face more challenges and struggles during the early stage of their career as they are constantly trying out methods and tasks with their students and establishing their professional images (Farrell, 2003; Li, 2012; Ruohotie-Lyhty, 2013; Sabar, 2004). The struggles and negotiation contribute to the development of their personal practical knowledge and professional images and identities. In the meantime, novice teachers bring knowledge to the existing community and engage in re-negotiation between their prior learning experience and the immediate context. This re-negotiation will further contribute to the development of the community and shape the local practice. From two different directions, it is clear that understanding novice teachers\u2019 cognition is essential in improving teaching and learning and informing teacher education. Theoretically and methodologically, it is vital to understand decision-making and knowing in situ. Against this background, this paper addresses novice teachers\u2019 cognition, particularly how novice language teachers demonstrate their understanding, knowing, believing, stance-taking, and positioning in the moment-by-moment talk in their professional settings.<\/p>\n

The purpose of this research is two-fold. First and foremost, this research will take a different theoretical position to define and understand teacher cognition, focusing on the multiple and fluid nature of the concept. Traditionally, teacher cognition is viewed as somewhat static and stable, performing as a filter in the teachers\u2019 decision-making process. However, the research evidence also suggests that teachers display multiple fluid understanding and practice according to the micro-context (e.g., Gray & Morton, 2019; Li, 2017; 2020a). Therefore, by taking an emic perspective, this research aims to make a methodological breakthrough and advance our understanding of teacher cognition\u2019s social and dialogic nature. Secondly, this research offers further insights into novice teachers\u2019 cognition, as research into novice teachers\u2019 cognition is scarce. The findings significantly impact teacher development and education. To this end, the paper examines the cognition-in-interaction of novice teachers in their professional context. It seeks to illuminate how their cognition is displayed through interactional resources and strategies in interactional work.<\/p>\n

Literature Review<\/h3>\n

Language Teacher Cognition<\/h4>\n

Teacher cognition refers to teachers\u2019 principles or theories about teaching and learning that guide their classroom decisions and actions. A review of the literature on second-language teacher cognition suggests that the researchers have used multiple terms. The most widely used are perception, conception, attitudes, pedagogical knowledge, personal practical knowledge, beliefs, etc. These terms have been defined with different foci. For example, \u2018beliefs,\u2019 a frequently used and interchangeable term for \u2018cognition,\u2019 has been viewed with different dimensions, such as cognitive, affective, subjective, and objective (Richards & Lockhart, 1994). As such, various definitions have been proposed. For example, in a recent review of the development of language teacher cognition, Borg (2019) offers a sophisticated and developed perspective of teacher cognition, defining it as \u201cunderstanding, concerning the personal, professional, sociocultural and historical dimensions of teachers\u2019 lives, how becoming, being, and developing as a teacher is shaped by (and in turn shapes) what teachers (individually and collectively) think and feel about all aspects of their work\u201d (p. 4). Emphasising the significance of the social nature of cognition, Li (2017) takes a different stance to suggest cognition is not fixed and a static mental state but fluid and developmental in a social context, claiming it is cognition-in-interaction that we need to understand further.<\/p>\n

By conducting systematic research, Li (2020a) concludes four different traditions or theoretical positions researchers take in conducting empirical studies: cognitive perspective, interactionist perspective, discursive psychological perspective, and sociocultural perspective. The table below summarises the key features of the different perspectives and their associated research methodologies.<\/p>\n

Despite the different theoretical perspectives and methodological approaches researchers take, the consensus is that the impact of teacher cognition sheds light on the issues in developing effective pedagogy and improving student learning and promotes understanding of classroom instruction at a micro-level and teacher learning (Li, 2017). There are at least four reasons why we need to focus on teacher cognition. First, research suggests that teacher cognition heavily influences how teachers plan their lessons, make pedagogical and interactive decisions in the teaching process, and what kind of learning they promote in the classroom (Pajares, 1992; Borg, 2003; Mangubhai et al., 2004; Li, 2012). Second, researching teacher cognition is crucial to understanding classroom dynamics. That is, teacher cognition can reflect how an evolving identity, \u2018self-as-teacher,\u2019 is interpreted and how teachers and students work together to manage their relationships in the learning activities. Third, researching teacher cognition sheds light on teacher effectiveness (Fenstermacher, 1979; Li, 2017). A better understanding of teaching and learning can be achieved by revealing the decision-making process, thereby improving educational effectiveness or developing appropriate methodology. Finally, studying teacher cognition can contribute to teacher development of practical pedagogical knowledge, which is somewhat context-bound and context-specific. This is especially relevant to the context where innovation in practice is expected. Gaining insights from teachers can facilitate the implementation of innovative practices and reduce associated barriers.<\/p>\n

Table 1. Theoretical Perspectives of Language Teacher Cognition Research <\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
Perspective<\/td>\nKey features<\/td>\nFocus<\/td>\nResearch Methodology<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Cognitive<\/td>\nBeliefs and psychological constructs are fixed assumptions or prepositions held consciously or unconsciously by teachers. Cognition is considered as one\u2019s static traits that remain constant across situations.<\/td>\nResearch tends to focus on reality inside teachers\u2019 heads, and the focus is to elicit what teachers think about one or many aspects of their professional lives.<\/td>\nSurvey and case studies, often involving questionnaires and interviews.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Interactionist<\/td>\nTeachers\u2019 beliefs and actions are not separate but a unified entity. This perspective focuses on the emergence of beliefs in interaction and places high value on the actual practice of the teacher.<\/td>\nThe beliefs are fluid, and they emerge as a result of teacher\u2013student interactions.<\/td>\nInteractional analysis<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Discursive psychology<\/td>\nIt treats language as a central activity in social life and a vehicle through which our sense of the world, and indeed psychological concepts such as memory, attitude, or cognition) are actively constructed. It studies how these psychological concepts are deployed in, oriented to, and managed in the language (talk or text) by people. Social interaction, therefore, is an illustration of these concepts.<\/td>\nIt focuses on how issues like<\/p>\n

knowing are dealt with by the participants in a conversation. Therefore, how beliefs and knowledge \u2018emerge\u2019 from discourses and are \u2018accomplished\u2019 locally.<\/td>\n

Conversation analysis<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Sociocultural theory<\/td>\nBeliefs, understanding, and knowledge are constructed in a particular social and cultural context, and people\u2019s thinking and behaviours are shaped by a given context.<\/td>\nA focus is placed on understanding how social and cultural practice shapes individuals\u2019 understanding, knowledge, and beliefs.<\/td>\nMultiple and mixed methods<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

Novice teachers\u2019 cognition<\/h4>\n

As discussed above, there is insufficient knowledge about novice teachers\u2019 cognition. Additionally, the limited number of studies suggests some contradictory research findings. In what follows, I will discuss four relevant studies. Informed by complexity theory, Sun and Zhang (2022) explored and compared university English teachers\u2019 cognitions and practices about form-focused instruction in grammar teaching by conducting a multicase study on two novices and two experienced teachers in China. The study revealed that teachers with varied teaching experience had the same attitude toward English teaching in a unified top-down educational system where all teachers must teach according to a central governing body\u2019s mandate. Teachers, guided by the same syllabus and teaching materials, tended to formulate similar teacher cognitions in English teaching. However, the authors also highlighted the differences between novice and experienced teachers in actualising their cognitions about focus on form instruction in their practices. The authors made an interesting point regarding the stableness of novice teachers\u2019 cognition by claiming, \u201cthe novice teachers\u2019 cognitions are not as solid as those of the experienced teachers\u2026 novice teachers need to renew or update their cognitions and knowledge by attending teacher education programmes, workshops, or other forms of continuing professional development or any other professional learning activities\u201d (p.13). It seemed that the novice teachers failed to implement focus on form while the experienced teachers were able to do so. They argued that the novice teachers\u2019 cognitions about focus on form instruction were generally peripheral, while the beliefs held by the experienced teachers were mainly core or central.<\/p>\n

Webster (2019) investigated the practical knowledge development of four early career English language teachers outside structured professional development programmes as they taught speaking skills to adult migrants. He identified a notable lack of early career practical knowledge development in all four participating teachers, indicating a strong relationship between this absence of growth and the theoretical nature of the teachers\u2019 practical knowledge. The findings highlighted the need for educational institutions to ensure mechanisms are in place which facilitate active and ongoing teacher engagement with theory.<\/p>\n

Kaca & Yigitoglu (2017) investigated the influences of the curriculum followed at an intensive English program on novice teachers\u2019 cognitions. Findings revealed that the teachers encountered specific challenges in realising the curriculum objectives. These included confusion regarding the curriculum followed in their teaching context and tensions between their beliefs and practices while realising the curriculum objectives. Such confusion contributes to the discrepancies between their teaching practice and ideas. The study also found that the teachers responded to the curriculum requirements in classrooms in different ways, mainly compromising their beliefs, suggesting the curriculum was a hindrance rather than a help. The authors argued the importance of teachers being central in the decision-making processes of curriculum development and implementation.<\/p>\n

Karimi and Norouzi (2017) investigated how novice L2 teachers’ pedagogical knowledge base might grow as a result of expert mentoring initiatives, where the novice teachers received a mentoring program consisting of Video-Recorded Performance Analysis, Expert-Teacher Observation and Critical Friendship initiatives from experienced teachers. The study noted that student behaviour ranked most among novice teachers\u2019 thought categories. As explained by previous research, newly qualified teachers are usually more concerned with this issue due to a lack of confidence in their job (Gatbonton, 2008). The other insight from the study was the positive impact of mentoring programmes in orienting novice teachers towards a more \u2018experienced\u2019 by raising their awareness about students and their learning.<\/p>\n

Cognition-in-interaction<\/h4>\n

Cognition-in-interaction is \u201csocially and publicly displayed understanding, knowing, positioning, conceptualising and stance taking\u201d (Li, 2017, p.56). It takes a discursive psychological perspective to view teacher cognition as socially constructed, a consequence or outcome of interaction with others. Cognition-in-interaction emphaises that cognition is situational and developmental, which views talk as a medium of action rather than a channel to action. That is, people in a conversation respond to each other appropriately and do interactional work together to establish meanings. Words, thus, are powerful and have consequences. Therefore, cognition-in-interaction is a special kind of psychological reality \u2013 not defined by the mental state or process but by the participants orienting practically in an ongoing interaction following the rules for turn-taking. In essence, cognitions are publicly displayed in natural utterances, which are shaped by the understanding of the prior turns and shape the development of the next turn.<\/p>\n

Discursive psychological perspective leads the study of teacher cognition to very different approaches. The focus is shifted from the mental construct of participants to the displayed positions and understandings of the participants. Cognition-in-interaction emphasises action and natural talk and views beliefs as locally constructed and publicly displayed understandings, for example, by analysing student\u2013teacher interactions in classrooms and interviews with teachers about their beliefs (Morton, 2012). The merit of the discursive psychological perspective on teacher cognition is the emphasis on action, micro context, and natural talk, which is distinct from the cognitive view of teacher cognition that stresses the cognitive psychological labels using experimental manipulations or decontextualised examples.<\/p>\n

Discursive psychology adopts social interaction as a lens for studying cognition, such as student\u2013teacher interaction in classrooms and teacher\u2013teacher interactions, following the principles of conversation analysis (CA). The rationale for using CA principles is to uncover how intersubjectivity (or joint meaning-making) is organised by the participants rather than to approach the data from an extraneous viewpoint. That is, the focus is placed on how participants display their understanding of the situation for one another. In such talk-in-interaction, speakers display in their sequentially \u2018next\u2019 turn an understanding of what the \u2018prior\u2019 turn is about and how they are positioned and oriented to it (Hutchby & Wooffitt, 2008). Therefore, data are not approached with a predetermined set of features but treated relatively open; as Seedhouse (2004) argues, CA provides an emic analysis of social action in classrooms from an ethnomethodological perspective, allowing data to speak for themselves. Despite the limited research in teacher cognition from a CA perspective, there is some relevant work regarding teacher identity (Gray & Morton, 2019; Li, 2020b) and teacher learning through conversation analysis (e.g., Huth et al., 2019; Sert, 2015; 2021). The collection work suggests that the emic perspective offers a moment-by-moment understanding of self and others, positioning, and learning in a professional context.<\/p>\n

Research Methodology<\/h3>\n

Conversation Analysis<\/h4>\n

Conversation Analysis treats \u201cgrammar and lexical choices as sets of resources which participants deploy, monitor, interpret and manipulate to perform their social acts\u201d (Schegloff et al., 2002, p.15). In principle, CA considers talking as an action rather than a channel to action. Thus, in conversation, participants do and perform knowing and understanding, and their being is constituted in talk-in-interaction. CA focuses on \u201chow sequences of action are generated and how participants\u2019 turns display their interpretation of each other\u2019s utterances and the social actions they represent\u201d (Hutchby & Wooffitt, 2008, p.14). In this sense, the conversation also \u201cperforms a social display of the interactants\u2019 cognitive, emotional, and attitudinal states\u201d (Li, 2017, p.57).<\/p>\n

By adopting CA principles in researching teacher cognition, it is possible to understand how moment-by-moment pedagogical decisions are made and how teachers orient to students. As a methodology, CA follows principles and assumptions, as summarised by Hutchby and Wooffitt (2008, p.20):<\/p>\n