Ethnocentrism and Motivation in Bilingual Students’ Language Learning: A Study on the Ideal and Ought to L2-Self Constructs

February 2025 – Volume 28, Number 4

https://doi.org/10.55593/ej.28112a1

Hassan Mollahossein
Urmia University, Iran
<h.mollahosseinurmia.ac.ir>

Karim Sadeghi
Dhofar University, Oman
<ksadeghidu.edu.om>

Abstract

This paper examines the relationship between ethnocentrism and motivation in language learning, focusing on the Ideal L2-Self and Ought to L2-Self constructs of the L2 Motivational Self System. Additionally, the study examined the potential moderating effect of gender on the relationships between ethnocentrism and both the Ideal L2-Self and Ought to L2-Self constructs. The study included 113 students. Two questionnaires were used to collect data: an ethnocentrism questionnaire and a questionnaire assessing the Ideal L2-Self and Ought to L2-Self constructs. The results revealed a negative correlation between ethnocentrism and the Ideal L2-Self construct, indicating that as ethnocentrism increased, learners’ ideal selves in terms of language ability and future language use decreased. However, no significant relationship was found between ethnocentrism and the Ought to L2-Self construct. Furthermore, the influence of gender was not significant in moderating the relationship between ethnocentrism and the Ideal L2-Self or between ethnocentrism and the Ought to L2-Self construct. The research emphasizes the importance of tackling ethnocentrism in language learning settings and advocates for promoting intercultural understanding in language education. The study’s implications are discussed, and suggestions for future research are provided.

Keywords: Ethnocentrism, Motivational Self System, Ideal L2-Self, Ought to L2-Self, EFL Learners

Teaching and learning a foreign language cannot be separated from the cultural predisposition learners bring to the learning process. These cultural influences shape how learners interpret and engage with the language, often leading to biases. One such bias is ethnocentrism, defined as individuals’ beliefs that their cultures and norms are superior and righteous, compared to others (Bennett, 2017). According to Neuliep et al. (2001), individuals with high levels of ethnocentrism tend to prefer interacting within their own culture and hold negative attitudes and perceptions toward individuals from other cultures.

Given its significant role in social sciences, ethnocentrism has been investigated through various disciplinary lenses. Recently, researchers have increasingly employed agent-based models (ABMs) to study ethnocentrism and related concepts. One notable example is Hammond and Axelrod’s model of ethnocentrism, which examines the dynamics of ethnocentrism within populations. This model explores how group-tag barriers and social interactions influence the emergence of ethnocentric behaviors and cooperation strategies (Lemos et al., 2019). The definition and concept of ethnocentrism used in this study closely align with Hammond and Axelrod’s model.

Ethnocentrism is closely tied to the concepts of cultural distance and intercultural sensitivity. Cultural distance refers to the degree of dissimilarity or similarity between different cultures (Dutt, 2022). Cultural distance plays a substantial role in language learning, as evidenced by various studies (Muszyńska et al., 2023; Lieb, 2022). Moreover, intercultural sensitivity refers to the ability to develop emotions toward understanding and appreciating cultural differences, promoting appropriate and effective intercultural communication (Chen & Starosta,1996). It involves being mindful to notice others, willing to learn about other cultures, and adapting one’s behavior according to cultural differences (Bhawuk & Brislin, 2000). Intercultural sensitivity and ethnocentrism lie at opposite ends of the spectrum. While ethnocentrism involves judging other cultures based on the norms of one’s own culture, intercultural sensitivity is the ability to recognize, respect, and adapt to cultural differences.

Unlike second language learning, where interaction with native speakers may be more frequent due to geographic proximity or cultural integration, foreign language learning often faces limitations in direct contact. In this context, negative ethnocentric attitudes can be potentially detrimental to learners’ motivation. Motivation is a concept the importance of which has been widely noticed both in psychology and in language learning. A widely recognized and influential model is Gardner’s socio-educational model, in which he has divided motivation into instrumental and integrative (Gardner, 2010). Instrumental motivation pertains to reasons behind learning a language, such as career growth or academic obligations. On the contrary, integrative motivation arises from a desire to merge with and be part of the community speaking the target language. A relatively recent model proposed by Dörnyei (2009) called the L2 Motivational Self System assumes motivation to have three constructs (Al-Hoorie, 2018; Kırmızı et al.; Li, 2023; Thorsen et al., 2017):

1- Ideal L2-Self: involves “the L2-specific facet of one’s ideal self” (Dörnyei, 2009, p. 29). It deals with individuals’ desires regarding their language ability, and what they imagine themselves to be in the future in terms of using the language.

2- Ought to L2-Self: “the attributes that one believes one ought to possess to avoid possible negative outcomes” (Dörnyei, 2009, p. 29). It is the self, one feels to be obliged to become because of the expectations others have regarding his language ability.

3- L2 learning experience: “situation-specific motives related to the immediate learning environment and experience” (Dörnyei, 2009, p. 29). It is the effect of the language learning environment on learner’s view of future language learning.

Dörnyei (2009) clarified that the L2 Motivational Self System included the internal desires of the learner, the social pressures exercised by influential or authoritative people in the learner’s environment, and the experience of being engaged in the learning process.

The study focused on the Ideal L2-Self and Ought to L2-Self components of the L2 Motivational Self System. This choice was based on Dörnyei’s (2009) argument that the L2 Learning Experience involves more situated and immediate motives related to the learning environment. Thus, it is conceptualized differently from the two self-guides (Ideal L2-Self and Ought to L2-Self) and requires separate investigations.

Ethnocentrism can manifest differently for different genders (Kemmelmeier, 2010). Thus, the interaction between individuals and other cultures and languages may be influenced by gender roles and societal expectations. Research suggests that women are more motivated by a desire to connect with other cultures, while men might prioritize career advancement (Langman & Shi, 2020; Kinginger, 2008). Furthermore, the intricate interplay of gender with cultural identity and self-perception in language learning contexts holds significance (Kinginger, 2008; Langman & Shi, 2020). Notions of masculinity or femininity within a cultural framework might impact individuals’ perceptions of their Ideal or Ought to L2-Selves, shedding light on language learning processes. For example, in societies where being assertive is considered a masculine trait, male learners may feel more pressured to communicate in the process of second language learning. On the other hand, in communities where women are traditionally expected to be more reserved, female learners might find it challenging to engage in tasks that require them to be outspoken. These cultural norms influence how learners imagine themselves as speakers of a language and shape their perceptions of what others expect from them (Kim, 2001; Gudykunst & Kim, 2003). Thus, the dynamic relationship, between gender expectations and language learning objectives can influence learners’ Ideal or Ought to L2-Selves during the process of learning a language.

When examining the cultural and societal aspects of second language learning, one must consider the diverse ethnic groups in Iran. In addition to Persians, Azerbaijanis, Kurds, Lurs, Arabs, Balochis, Turkmens, Turkic tribes, and other smaller groups make up the population of Iran (Minahan, 2002). Although Persian is the main language used in the country as the official language and as the lingua franca between different ethnic groups, these ethnic groups have kept their unique cultures and native languages. For example, people from Azerbaijani provinces mostly speak Azerbaijani Turkish, Kurds speak Kurdish, and Arabs speak Arabic (Asgharzadeh, 2007). Most of the members of the ethnic groups are considered bilinguals as they speak their native language in daily conversations, and they study in Persian at all educational levels. As a result, students in the Iranian educational system are considered bilingual, with Persian as their second language.

While Iran’s rich mosaic of ethnic groups and cultures contributes to its linguistic diversity, the country’s relationship with foreign languages, particularly English, adds another layer of complexity to its linguistic landscape. In Iran, English language learning faces various challenges and opportunities. The country’s English language education system has been influenced by political and cultural factors, with concerns about the impact of English on national identity (Moharami et al., 2022). Also, Iranian EFL students often lack exposure to the culture of English-speaking countries. Despite these challenges, there is a growing interest in learning English in private schools for personal and social development (Moharami et al., 2022). The status of English in Iran has evolved over different political periods, with changes in the cultural content of English textbooks reflecting ideological shifts, such as the transition from Western to Islamic/Revolutionary cultural elements (Goodrich, 2020).

This research presents an innovative approach to understanding language learning motivation in multicultural contexts, focusing on the unique population of Iranian bilingual undergraduates (Azerbaijani-Persian, Kurdish-Persian, and Persian-Azerbaijani). It explores the influence of cultural attitudes, particularly ethnocentrism, on language learning motivation through the lens of self-conceptualization. Although the study was carried out in Iran, the results can be generalized to a wider context. The Iranian context serves as a representative sample for countries with multiethnic and multicultural populations, offering insights that may be applicable globally. Also, the inclusion of gender as a variable adds an important dimension to understanding how different factors interact in language learning motivation and ethnocentric beliefs.

It is important to note that for the participants in this study, who are Iranian bilinguals, English is technically the third language they are learning, not the second. However, throughout this paper, we use the term “second language learning” when referring to English language learning. This choice of terminology is made to maintain consistency with the broader field of Second Language Acquisition (SLA) research, where “second language” is often used as an umbrella term for any language learned after the first language, regardless of whether it is the second, third, or subsequent language acquired.

Literature Review

This literature review aims to consolidate the current understanding of the relationship between ethnocentrism and language learning motivation, specifically focusing on its potential intersections with the L2 Motivational Self System. The evolution of research in this domain will be outlined, ranging from initial investigations into cultural differences and language skills to contemporary studies of the components of the L2 Motivational Self System.

Studies on Ethnocentrism and Language Learning

Ethnocentrism, a concept closely linked to the cultural dimension of language learning and teaching, has not received extensive research attention, resulting in its potential impact on other language learning factors remaining largely unexplored. Nonetheless, some studies have provided valuable insights into the association between ethnocentrism and language learning. For instance, Su (2018) discovered a significant negative correlation between students’ ethnocentrism and their interest in learning English as a foreign language. However, the study emphasized that the strongest positive correlation was between learners’ willingness to engage in interactions and their interest in learning English, rather than ethnocentrism per se. This implies that while ethnocentrism may negatively impact language learning, other factors, such as the level of interaction or engagement, may play a more important role.

In the Iranian context, Soltani (2014) conducted a study to explore the impact of ethnic background on intercultural sensitivity levels among EFL university students. The findings revealed that the relationship between ethnic background and intercultural sensitivity was strongest among Kurdish learners, while it was weakest among Azerbaijani ethnic groups. This indicates that ethnic background can potentially affect intercultural attitudes and sensitivity in language learning. In another study, Nameni (2020) focused on examining the relationship between ethnocentrism and intercultural willingness to communicate (IWTC) among Iraqi and Iranian medical students in Iran. The study focused on their willingness to communicate between two groups as classmates. The findings of the research revealed that Iraqi medical students demonstrated more ethnocentrism and less willingness to communicate compared to their Iranian counterparts. Additionally, the study detected notable gender-related differences, highlighting that both male and female Iraqi students exhibited higher levels of ethnocentrism compared to their counterparts of the same gender from Iran. Moreover, Iraqi male students demonstrated a lower intercultural willingness to communicate compared to both their female counterparts and Iranian male and female medical students.

In a study, Hinenoya and Gatbonton (2000) studied the role of ethnocentrism, cultural traits, and acceptance of values and beliefs in English proficiency among Japanese individuals living in North America. The researchers used a Social Factors Questionnaire to assess participants’ attitudes and beliefs toward various aspects of Japanese culture, language, and life. The questionnaire included measures of general ethnocentrism, Japanese ethno-specificity, and language ethno-specificity. The findings suggested a potential link between cultural traits and beliefs and second language learning, highlighting the importance of considering ethnocentrism in language education contexts. Significant correlations were found between some forms of ethnocentrism and English proficiency levels. However, general ethnocentrism and acceptance of the groupism label did not show significant effects on English proficiency.

Studies on Ethnocentrism and Motivation

Despite the growing body of literature on the L2 Motivational Self System, there is a dearth of research investigating the relationship between its components and ethnocentrism.

In a study, Svanes (1987) investigated the relationship between cultural distance, motivation, and language proficiency in a study involving 167 foreign students learning Norwegian in Norway. The participants were categorized into four groups based on their cultural proximity to Norwegian culture. The analysis showed a significant correlation between cultural distance and language proficiency. European and American students achieved the highest grades and demonstrated more integrative motivation (intrinsic desire to learn the language and connect with the culture), while Middle Eastern and African students ranked third and displayed more instrumental motivation (desire to learn the language for practical reasons). Asian students achieved the lowest scores and exhibited weaker motivation overall. These results indicate a connection between cultural distance (and potentially ethnocentrism) and second language learning. This aligns with the idea that students with less ethnocentric views, who are more open to the target culture, might be more intrinsically motivated and achieve greater proficiency.

Chu (2019) conducted a study to investigate the motivation for learning English among 88 Taiwanese university students and the factors influencing it. The research identified nine motivational factors and examined their dynamic interactions. Positive English learning experiences, elevated levels of cultural diversity, interest, travel orientation, and the Ideal L2-Self were linked to increased motivation. Conversely, heightened ethnocentrism, Fear of assimilation, English anxiety, and the Ought to L2-Self had mixed effects on motivation, both facilitating and hindering it.

Furthermore, Zhao et al. (2022) explored the relationship between international posture and the L2 Motivational Self System among English majors in China, finding that an interest in intercultural interactions positively influenced the Ideal L2-Self and L2 learning experience. In a 13-week study on EFL learners, Aubrey and Philpott (2019) observed the positive effects of intercultural and intra-cultural contact on different components of the L2 Motivational Self System. Their findings demonstrated that exposure to intercultural contact had a notable impact on the variables of L2 learning experience and international posture. Hence, incorporating intercultural contact in the classroom led to a positive transformation in students’ attitudes toward the classroom environment and their perceptions of the international community.

Ultimately, a systematic narrative review conducted by Dörnyei (2020) on motivational variables in learning English as a foreign language underscored the extensive and diverse field of research in this area. The review emphasized the need to consider ethnocentrism as a potential factor influencing motivation in language learning.

The Gap

Despite the abundant literature on motivation in language learning and the increasing body of research on the L2 Motivational Self System, there exists a notable gap in our comprehension of the interaction between ethnocentrism and L2 Motivational System elements. This deficiency is twofold. Primarily, there is a widespread lack of global studies that expressly investigate the correlation between ethnocentrism and aspects of the L2 Motivational Self System. While studies have explored various factors influencing language learning motivation, the direct impact of ethnocentrism on the Ideal L2-Self and Ought to L2-Self constructs remains largely unexplored. Secondly, the few studies that have touched upon this relationship have yielded contradictory results, highlighting the need for further investigation. For instance, Hinenoya and Gatbonton (2000) found insufficient evidence to fully support the significance of ethnocentrism in language learning, while Su (2018) discovered a meaningful association between students’ ethnocentrism and their interest in learning English. Likewise, Chu (2019) found that heightened ethnocentrism had mixed effects on motivation, both facilitating and hindering it.

While the studies above provide valuable insights into ethnocentrism, intercultural sensitivity, and language learning motivation in various contexts, it is crucial to acknowledge their limitations. For example, Soltani’s (2014) investigation into Iranian EFL learners was constrained by its narrow focus on senior English majors, thereby overlooking other academic disciplines. Conversely, our study overcomes this constraint by incorporating diverse participants from various academic fields. Notably, several previous studies, such as Su’s (2018), neglected to incorporate extensive motivational factors like Gardner’s instrumental versus integrative motivation or Dörnyei’s L2 Motivational Self System. Our study directly fills this gap by concentrating on the L2 Motivational Self System, particularly the constructs of Ideal L2-Self and Ought to L2-Self. Finally, our study examines gender as a potential moderating factor, underscoring the need to take into account additional variables to fully comprehend the connection between ethnocentrism and motivation for language learning.

By directly confronting these gaps and limitations identified in previous research, our study aimed to investigate whether gender moderates the relationships between ethnocentrism and the Ideal L2-Self, as well as between ethnocentrism and the Ought to L2-Self constructs. In pursuit of this objective, the study formulated the following research questions:

1. Is there a significant relationship between Iranian English learners’ ethnocentrism and their Ideal L2-Self construct?
2. Is there a significant relationship between Iranian English learners’ ethnocentrism and their “Ought to L2-Self” construct?
3. Does gender effectively moderate the relationship between Iranian English learners’ ethnocentrism and their Ideal L2-Self construct?
4. Does gender effectively moderate the relationship between Iranian English learners’ ethnocentrism and their “Ought to L2-Self” construct?

Method

In this section, a comprehensive account is presented concerning the participants, the instruments used, the procedures for data collection, and the methods employed for data analysis in the study.

Participants

The participant pool consisted of 119 undergraduates in Iran. Students from diverse fields of study, including English Translation, Law, Medical Engineering, Civil Engineering, Physiology, Accounting, Psychology, and more, were recruited. All participants were enrolled in general English classes, excluding English Translation students. After careful examination, as shown in Table 1, 113 participants who had adequately filled the questionnaires (60 females & 53 males) were deemed suitable for analysis, as incomplete or carelessly filled responses (e.g., marking the same response for all items on a page) were excluded. The participants were 18 to 45 years old, with the majority falling into the young adult category (18 –23). The sample predominantly comprised 99 ethnic Iranian Azerbaijani Turks, 10 ethnic Iranian Kurds, and 4 ethnic Persians. Table 1 shows the frequency of the participants.

Table 1. Frequencies of Participant Sample

Gender
Female	N	Valid	60
		Missing	0
Male	N	Valid	53
		Missing	0

Instruments

This section outlines the instruments used in the study, focusing on the Generalized Ethnocentrism (GENE) and L2 Motivational Self System questionnaire (L2MSS).

Generalized Ethnocentrism (GENE) scale. The Generalized Ethnocentrism (GENE) Scale (Neuliep & McCroskey, 1997) was used to assess participants’ levels of ethnocentrism (Appendix A). This scale consists of 22 items, of which 15 are scored: items that measure individuals’ attitudes and beliefs related to ethnocentrism. The researchers translated the English version of the questionnaire into Persian and then back-translated it to English. This was done to enhance the accuracy of the items and to ensure the equivalence of the scale. Participants were asked to indicate their level of agreement or disagreement with each statement on a Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The scale assesses different aspects of ethnocentrism, such as cultural superiority, cultural relativism, and cultural empathy. The scale covers various dimensions of ethnocentrism, including cultural superiority, cultural relativism, and cultural empathy.

To establish the reliability of the GENE, an internal consistency analysis was conducted using Cronbach’s alpha coefficient. The reliability index indicates the extent to which the items in the questionnaire consistently measure the same underlying construct. In the original study by Neuliep and McCroskey (1997), Cronbach’s alpha coefficient for the ethnocentrism scale was found to be 0.86, indicating high internal consistency and reliability. The reliability of the translated version was assessed, and the obtained reliability index was 0.8.

The L2 Motivational Self System questionnaire. The L2 Motivational Self System questionnaire (L2MSS), adapted from Dörnyei (2009), used by Papi (2010), was employed to assess participants’ ideal self-images concerning their second language and Ought to L2-Self (Appendix B). The reliability of the scales measuring the Ideal L2 self, and Ought to L2-Self were found to be α = 0.72, and α = 0.68, respectively. Although specific reliability information for the Ideal L2-Self construct questionnaire may vary depending on the study, previous research using similar adaptations of the questionnaire has reported Cronbach’s alpha coefficients ranging from 0.80 to 0.90, indicating high internal consistency and reliability (e.g., Dörnyei, 2009; MacIntyre et al., 1998). In the current study, the questionnaire was translated into Persian and then back-translated to English to guarantee the precision and comparability of the translated version with the original one. The translated scale showed a coefficient of 0.82. Moreover, the validity of the questionnaire has been well confirmed by several studies (Islam et al., 2013).

The L2MSS questionnaire consists of a series of statements that aim to capture individuals’ desired or ideal selves as competent and proficient L2 speakers, as well as expectations they feel others have of them, in terms of language proficiency. Participants were asked to rate their level of agreement or disagreement with each statement on a Likert-type scale, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 6 (strongly agree).

Gender identification in this study was determined through participants’ self-identification. The questionnaires comprised a question prompting participants to specify their gender, providing choices of ‘Male’, ‘Female’, and ‘Other’. This approach is consistent with contemporary practices in the field of social science, which acknowledge gender as a self-identified attribute instead of presuming a binary classification based on biological sex. By enabling participants to self-identify, we intended to respect individual gender identities and obtain a more intricate understanding of gender within our study population.

Data Collection

The questionnaires were administered in four classrooms to voluntary participants who expressed their willingness to participate in the study and complete the questionnaires. A detailed explanation of the study’s nature was provided, emphasizing that it was not a test and that there were no right or wrong answers to any item. Participants were made aware that their participation would contribute to future pedagogical decisions and were instructed to complete the questionnaires with care. Sufficient time (about 30 minutes) was allocated to ensure thorough completion.

Data Analysis

Before conducting data analysis, thorough screening was performed to exclude incomplete or carelessly filled out questionnaires. Any questionnaires with uniform responses for all items on a page were also removed from the analysis. This process ensured the integrity and quality of the data for further analysis.

The collected data, including the ethnocentrism, Ideal L2-Self, and Ought to L2-Self scores, were entered into SPSS version 26 software. Before proceeding with the analysis, the normality of the 3 sets of data was assessed using the Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test (Appendix C).

Results

In this section, we present the descriptive statistics for the variables of interest: Ethnocentrism, Ideal L2-Self, and Ought to L2-Self. Table 2 displays the N (sample size), minimum and maximum values, mean, and standard deviation for each variable. It shows the number of the participants, the lowest and the highest scores they got on the motivation constructs, and how spread out the points are, respectively.

Pearson product-moment correlation was used to examine the relationships between ethnocentrism and the other variables (Ideal L2-Self and Ought to L2-Self scores). A significance level of p < 0.05 was set for all statistical tests to determine the presence of significant relationships between the variables. This threshold ensured that only statistically meaningful associations were considered in the analysis, providing reliable insights into the relationship between ethnocentrism and the L2 Motivational Self System.

Table 2. Descriptive Statistics

	N	Minimum	Maximum	Mean	Std. Deviation
Ethnocentrism	113	19	52	35.12	7.462
Ideal.L2self	113	10	42	25.65	7.398
Ought.to.L2self	113	6	36	20.67	6.611
Valid N (listwise)	113

For all variables, Kolmogorov-Smirnov yielded p-values greater than 0.05. Therefore, based on this test, it can be suggested that the three variables Ethnocentrism, Ideal L2-Self, and Ought to L2-Self, exhibit a reasonably normal distribution.

Reliability of the Questionnaires

To assess the internal consistency of the instruments used in this study, Cronbach’s alpha coefficients were calculated for both the Generalized Ethnocentrism (GENE) scale and the L2 Motivational Self System (L2MSS) questionnaire.  The result for Cronbach’s Alpha based on Standardized Items was .807 for GENE and.830 for the L2 Motivational Self System (L2MSS) Questionnaire. These results suggest that both instruments demonstrate acceptable to good reliability in the current study, supporting their use for measuring ethnocentrism and L2 motivational self-system constructs in the target population.

The Relationship between Ethnocentrism and the L2 Motivational Self System

This analysis aimed to determine the presence and nature of any significant associations between ethnocentrism and L2 Motivational Self System components (Ideal L2-Self and Ought to L2-Self constructs). Two research questions were formulated to explore these relationships as mentioned above.

To explore the research questions posed above, correlation analysis was conducted using the Pearson product-moment correlation (Table 3). It was employed to determine the presence of any significant relationships between ethnocentrism and the L2 Motivational Self System components. In this study, correlation matrices did not require corrections, such as Bonferroni, as the analysis was exploratory rather than confirmatory. Additionally, the number of correlations examined was relatively small, focusing on specific relationships between ethnocentrism and components of the L2 Motivational Self System. This approach is consistent with common practices in exploratory research in second language acquisition studies (Plonsky & Oswald, 2014).

The correlation analysis yielded the following results:

1. Ethnocentrism and Ideal L2-Self: The correlation between Ethnocentrism and Ideal L2-Self was found to be significant (r = -0.240, p = 0.010). This suggests a negative relationship between these variables.
2. Ethnocentrism and Ought to L2-Self: The correlation between Ethnocentrism and Ought to L2-Self was not significant (r = 0.121, p = 0.202), indicating no significant relationship between these variables.

These findings indicate that there is a significant negative relationship between Iranian English learners’ ethnocentrism and their Ideal L2-Self construct. However, there is no significant relationship between ethnocentrism and their “Ought to L2-Self” construct. These results provide insights into the associations between ethnocentrism and different aspects of the L2 Motivational Self System among Iranian English learners.

Table 3. Pearson product-moment correlation between Ethnocentrism and the L2 Motivational Self System components

	Ethnocentrism	Ideal.L2self
Ideal.L2self	-.240*
Ought.to.L2self	.121	.099

The results are better illustrated in the scatterplot graph in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Scatterplot of Ethnocentrism and the L2 Motivational Self System Components

Moderating Role of Gender in the Relationship between Ethnocentrism and the L2 Motivational Self System

This section investigates whether gender plays a moderating role in the relationship between Iranian English learners’ ethnocentrism and their Ideal L2 self construct, as well as their Ought to L2 self construct. The examination of moderation aims to determine whether the association between ethnocentrism and L2-Self constructs differs depending on gender. The statistical technique employed to assess moderation is partial correlations.

Table 4 presents the partial correlation coefficients between the variables, controlling for the gender variable. The partial correlation coefficients indicate the strength and direction of the relationships between ethnocentrism, Ideal L2-Self, and ought-to-L2-Self constructs, considering the influence of gender.

Table 4. Partial correlations

Control Variables		Ethnocentrism	Ideal L2 self	Ought to L2 self
	Ideal.L2self	-.240
	Ought.to.L2self	.121	.099
	Gender	.228	.105	.037
Gender	Ideal.L2self	-.273
	Ought.to.L2self	.116	.096

First, a significant negative correlation was found (r = -.240, p = .010), between ethnocentrism and Ideal L2-Self, indicating that higher levels of ethnocentrism were associated with lower levels of Ideal L2-Self. However, when gender was introduced as a moderator, the partial correlation between ethnocentrism and Ideal L2-Self remained significant (r = -.273, p = .004), suggesting that gender had little influence in controlling for the relationship between ethnocentrism and Ideal L2-Self.

Second, no significant correlation was observed in the analysis (r = .121, p = .202) regarding the relationship between ethnocentrism and Ought to L2-Self. After controlling for gender, the partial correlation between ethnocentrism and Ought to L2-Self remained non-significant (r = .116, p = .225), indicating that gender did not have a substantial influence in controlling for the relationship.

In summary, the results indicate that gender did not act as a significant moderator on the relationship between ethnocentrism and Ideal L2-Self or on the relationship between ethnocentrism and ought to L2-Self.

Discussion

The findings imply that as ethnocentrism intensifies – signifying a tendency to view one’s own culture as superior – the idealized self-concept related to language proficiency and future language utilization diminishes. Our findings resonate with previous research, such as Nameni (2020), Svanes (1987), Soltani (2014), and Zhao et al. (2022). Although their studies did not focus on the relationship between ethnocentrism and motivation, their results offer preliminary evidence, indicating that learners’ ethnocentric views might influence their motivation levels and preferences in learning a new language. Additionally, this outcome aligns with Chu (2019), who has reported a negative association between ethnocentrism and language learning motivation. Moreover, this finding aligns with previous research on the role of cultural attitudes in language learning. For instance, Gardner’s (1985) socio-educational model emphasized the importance of integrative motivation, which involves a positive disposition toward the L2 community. Our results extend this understanding by suggesting that not only positive attitudes towards the target culture but also the absence of overly ethnocentric views toward one’s own culture may be crucial for developing a strong Ideal L2-Self.

The negative correlation observed in our study could be interpreted in several ways. First, it may indicate that individuals with strong ethnocentric views find it challenging to imagine themselves integrating aspects of the target language culture into their identity. This difficulty in cultural integration could hinder the development of a vivid and compelling Ideal L2-Self. Second, ethnocentrism might lead to a devaluation of the perceived benefits of L2 proficiency, thus reducing the aspirational appeal of becoming a skilled L2 user.

The lack of a significant relationship between ethnocentrism and the “Ought to L2-Self” construct is an interesting finding. It suggests that ethnocentrism does not strongly influence learners’ perceptions of what they should be in terms of language skills to meet societal expectations. In the Iranian context, societal norms and expectations regarding language learning, particularly English, are often shaped by factors such as perceived economic advantages, educational requirements, and global connectivity. These external pressures form the basis of the “Ought to L2-Self” and are typically influenced by parents, teachers, employers, and the broader society. For instance, there may be expectations to achieve high scores in English language exams for academic advancement or to develop proficiency for better job prospects in an increasingly globalized job market.

The findings of this study suggest that while ethnocentrism might influence personal aspirations and the ideal self-image of a language learner, it does not significantly affect how learners perceive external expectations. This could indicate that the influence of ethnocentrism is more deeply rooted in an individual’s self-concept and identity formation rather than in their interpretation of societal or external norms. In other words, learners’ internal motivations and cultural backgrounds play a more pivotal role in shaping their personal goals and self-perception. In contrast, their understanding of external expectations remains relatively stable and less influenced by their ethnocentric tendencies.

Interestingly, the lack of significant gender moderation suggests that the influence of ethnocentrism on learners’ L2 motivational self-guides operates similarly for both male and female Iranian English learners. This finding underscores the robustness of the observed correlation and implies that ethnocentrism’s impact on motivation remains consistent across genders. This implies that efforts to address ethnocentric attitudes in language learning contexts may not need to be substantially differentiated based on gender. These findings are particularly noteworthy given the cultural context of Iran, where gender roles and expectations can be quite distinct. The impact of ethnocentric attitudes in language learning transcends gender boundaries, at least in the context of Iranian English learners.

In conclusion, the results of this study reinforce and extend previous research linking ethnocentrism to language learning motivation. However, unlike prior studies, our results show no significant association between ethnocentrism and the Ought to L2-Self, indicating that societal expectations for language proficiency may be less influenced by ethnocentric tendencies. This nuanced understanding adds to the existing body of knowledge by highlighting the different ways ethnocentrism affects personal aspirations versus external pressures in the context of language learning motivation.

Conclusion

This study explored the relationship between ethnocentrism and motivation in Iranian students’ language learning. The findings suggest that students with stronger ethnocentric views tend to have a less developed Ideal L2-Self as language learners and users. However, ethnocentrism did not seem to significantly affect students’ Ought to L2-Self.

Although this research offers fresh perspectives on the correlation between ethnocentrism and motivation in Iranian students’ language learning, it is crucial to recognize its constraints. One limitation of this research lies in its exclusive utilization of quantitative methods. The integration of qualitative analysis, for instance, interviews or focus groups, may yield more profound understandings of the participants’ attitudes and enrich our comprehension of the intricate association between ethnocentrism and L2 motivation. Future studies should consider replicating this research in diverse cultural settings, both within Iran’s multi-ethnic landscape and internationally, to gain a more comprehensive understanding of ethnocentrism’s influence on language learning motivation.

The findings have important implications for language educators and policymakers. Being aware of the potential negative impact of ethnocentrism on language learning motivation, it is crucial to design instructional strategies that promote intercultural understanding and challenge ethnocentric beliefs. Providing opportunities for intercultural contact, cultural exchange, and collaborative learning activities can help learners realize the significance of cultural diversity and nurture a more inclusive mindset. Workshops on intercultural communication, support in selecting materials, and learning how to create language-inclusive spaces would be important. Teachers should be able to mediate and engage in discussions on the differences and similarities of cultures, dispelling stereotypes, and building empathy.

Supporting initiatives that enable both virtual and in-person intercultural exchanges can help mitigate the negative effects of ethnocentrism on language learning motivation. These initiatives might encompass international student exchange programs, online language exchange platforms, or joint projects with schools abroad. These experiences offer learners genuine opportunities to interact with diverse cultures, which can positively change their attitudes and enhance their motivation for language learning.

Additionally, policymakers should explore assessment methods that prioritize intercultural competence as much as language proficiency. This might include integrating cultural knowledge and sensitivity, into language exams or creating separate certifications for intercultural skills. These steps would highlight the importance of cultural understanding in language education and encourage learners to connect more profoundly with the target culture.

Finally, encouraging multilingualism and acceptance of cultural diversity within society, through public awareness campaigns and community events can create a more supportive environment for language learners. This broader cultural shift can help normalize intercultural interactions and reduce ethnocentric attitudes, thereby indirectly boosting language learning motivation.

About the Authors

Hassan Mollahossein is an Assistant Professor of TESOL/Applied Linguistics at Urmia University, Iran. He has held positions at Üsküdar University, Turkey; Azad University of Urmia, Iran; and Payamenoor University of Urmia, Iran. He is a reviewer for the MEXTESOL Journal (a Scopus-indexed journal in Cultural Studies, Linguistics and Language, and Education). His research interests include sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, content-based language teaching, motivation, and ESP. He has published articles in journals such as International Education Studies and TEL Journal. ORCID ID: 0000-0001-6953-1115

Karim Sadeghi is Professor of TESOL/Applied Linguistics at Dhofar University, Oman. Prior to this, he has held positions at Urmia University, Iran, and University of Wales Trinity Saint David (UK). He is the Founding Editor‑in‑Chief of Iranian Journal of Language Teaching Research (a top 9% Scopus‑indexed journal). His recent publications have appeared in top‑tier journals, including System, English for Specific Purposes Journal, and RELC Journal, among others. His most recent book publications include The Routledge Handbook of Technological Advances in Researching Language Learning (Routledge, 2025), and Fundamental Considerations in Technology Mediated Language Assessment (with Dan Douglas, Routledge, 2023). ORCID ID: 0000-0002-1426-9997

To Cite this Article

Mollahossein, H., & Sadeghi, K. (2025). Ethnocentrism and motivation in bilingual students’ language learning: a study on the ideal and ought to L2-self constructs. Teaching English as a Second Language Electronic Journal (TESL-EJ), 28(4). https://doi.org/10.55593/ej.28112a1

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Appendix A

Revised Generalized Ethnocentrism Scale (GENE)
Neuliep & McCroskey‚ 1997

1. Most other cultures are backward compared to my culture.
2. My culture should be the role model for other cultures.
3. People from other cultures act strange when they come to my culture.
4. Lifestyles in other cultures are just as valid as those in my culture.
5. Other cultures should try to be more like my culture.
6. I am not interested in the values and customs of other cultures.
7. People in my culture could learn a lot from people in other cultures.
8. Most people from other cultures just don’t know what’s good for them.
9. I respect the values and customs of other cultures.
10. Other cultures are smart to look up to our culture.
11. Most people would be happier if they lived like people in my culture.
12. I have many friends from different cultures.
13. People in my culture have just about the best lifestyles of anywhere.
14. Lifestyles in other cultures are not as valid as those in my culture.
15. I am very interested in the values and customs of other cultures.
16. I apply my values when judging people who are different.
17. I see people who are similar to me as virtuous.
18. I do not cooperate with people who are different.
19. Most people in my culture just don’t know what is good for them.
20. I do not trust people who are different.
21. I dislike interacting with people from different cultures.
22. I have little respect for the values and customs of other cultures

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Appendix B

The L2 Motivational Self System Questionnaire

Scales
1 (Strongly disagree), 2 (Disagree), 3 (Slightly disagree), 4 (Slightly agree), 5 (Agree), and 6 (Strongly agree)

Ideal L2-self items
I can imagine myself speaking English as if I were a native speaker of English.
I can imagine myself speaking English with international friends or colleagues.
Whenever I think of my future career, I imagine myself using English.
I can imagine myself studying in a university where all my courses are taught in English.
I can imagine myself writing English e-mails/letters fluently.
I can imagine myself living abroad and using English effectively for communicating with the locals.

Ought to L2-Self items
I study English because close friends of mine think it is important.
If I fail to learn English, I’ll be letting other people down.
I consider learning English important because the people I respect think that I should do it.
Studying English is important to me in order to gain the approval of my peers/teachers/family/boss.
Learning English is necessary because people surrounding me expect me to do so.
Studying English is important to me because other people will respect me more if I have the knowledge of English.
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Appendix C

Kolmogorov-Smirnova Test of Normality

	Statistic	df	Sig.
Ethnocentrism	.060	113	.200*
Ideal.L2self	.058	113	.200*
Ought.to.L2self	.070	113	.200*

* This is a lower bound of the true significance using the Lilliefors Significance Correction
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