A Mapping Analysis and Systematic Review of Studies (2012-2023) on English Medium Instruction in an EFL-Adopting Asian Country: Insights and Implications

November 2025 – Volume 29, Number 3

https://doi.org/10.55593/ej.29115a8

Arif Husein Lubis
Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia
<lubis_ahupi.edu>

Reza Anggriyashati Adara
Universitas Islam 45 Bekasi, Indonesia
<reza.adaragmail.com>

Abstract

This research is driven by the growing importance of English Medium Instruction (EMI) in the internationalization of education in countries where English is not the native language. A mapping analysis method was adopted, employing a replicable search strategy based on specific criteria to outline the distribution of studies concerning the implementation of EMI in Indonesia over the past decade (2012-2023). Subsequently, a systematic review was conducted to gain insights from the findings of 65 previous studies, followed by implications from the findings. The mapping analysis results revealed a rising interest in EMI research over the past three years, particularly in relation to the perceptions and experiences of immediate stakeholders (i.e., teachers and students). The content analysis identified six themes derived from the findings: expectations of the EMI program in Indonesia over the last decade, readiness to implement EMI, perceived roles of EMI, strategies for implementing EMI programs, teachers’ professional development, and emerging concerns with EMI. The implementation of EMI programs is expected to enhance students’ language and disciplinary knowledge while also broadening their intercultural skills, beneficial for job or study preparation overseas. Furthermore, Indonesian teachers largely support the incorporation of other working languages alongside English, embracing translanguaging, which is influenced by the teachers’ and students’ proficiency and instructional objectives. Teachers also employ specific communicative strategies to maintain student engagement. Given the complexity of EMI implementation, teachers engage in various professional development efforts, including participation in workshops and collaboration with peers. Finally, the concerns of both teachers and students regarding EMI are also addressed.

Keywords: EMI, implications, insights, mapping analysis, systematic review

Background for this Study

Internationalization has been a driving force in establishing a specific role for English as a Medium of Instruction (EMI) in countries where English is not the first language (Galloway & McKinley, 2017). The priority of internationalization involves internationalizing curricula, developing international cooperation, and performing research with partners from different countries (Galloway & McKinley, 2021). Some higher education institutions in Asia, such as Japan, South Korea, China, Thailand, and Malaysia, have offered English as a medium of instruction (EMI) classes as a part of their courses. Furthermore, implementing EMI courses allows more revenue and improves students’ employability and competitiveness in today’s job markets (Pecorari et al., 2011).

Over the last decade, there have been considerable studies on how EMI is conducted in diverse countries. Most of these studies have focused on discussing the advantages and disadvantages of EMI. Besides appealing to international students and staff (Jensen & Thøgersen, 2017), the presence of EMI programs can promote institutional internationalization and achievements (Hu, 2019), as well as enhance students’ chances of securing jobs in various countries (Coyle, 2013). Hence, language skills, particularly English, are perceived as a means to provide better opportunities for both students and universities. On the other hand, some studies have highlighted the challenges of conducting EMI courses. For instance, the findings of Cho’s (2012) study on the application of EMI at a science and engineering university in South Korea suggest that the students struggled to understand EMI courses due to their limited English proficiency. Similarly, despite having high levels of English proficiency, participants in Joe and Lee’s (2013) study also had difficulty comprehending courses delivered in English. Additionally, EMI may pose challenges for educators, as they are often required to translate their teaching materials from their native languages into English or forgo discussion time because students are reluctant to speak in English due to their limited proficiency, demanding more time and energy from educators (Hellekjær, 2017). Such scholarly discussions indicate the lack of conclusive consensus on the development of EMI practices, highlighting the need for a thorough review of previous studies to provide a clearer portrait of this particular issue. Moreover, there is a lack of studies investigating the implementation of EMI in the Indonesian context. The present study aims to outline previous research examining EMI in Indonesia.

Literature Review

The Concept of EMI

Although EMI has been identified by many different terms, such as content-based teaching and learning, immersion programs, theme-based language learning and teaching, or bilingual classes, the present study will use EMI as an umbrella term. In this sense, EMI can be defined as a program in which English is used as the medium of instruction to teach subjects other than the English language itself (Macaro et al., 2018). Thus, EMI places greater emphasis on content than language teaching (Dearden, 2014; Pecorari & Malmström, 2018). Although the English language is not taught explicitly in EMI courses, an increase in English proficiency is often expected as a result of participating in such programs (Wanphet & Tantawy, 2018), as students receive extensive feedback in English from lecturers and communicate in English with their peers (Airey et al., 2017; Galloway et al., 2017).  Therefore, EMI is perceived as a means to enhance students’ English proficiency by immersing them in the language through content learning.

Initially, the concept of EMI was considered ‘too Eurocentric,’ as EMI studies appeared to focus heavily on the Englishisation of higher education. However, as EMI has been implemented in many Asian countries, a growing body of scholarship has embraced the term global Englishes to better describe the EMI context (Rose et al., 2022). Furthermore, EMI research has begun to incorporate translanguaging practices, which are defined as pedagogical approaches that allow students to use their native language, the English language, and other working languages for learning and meaning-making, rather than restricting them to the use of English only in the classroom (Ataş, 2023; Otheguy et al., 2015). Numerous studies suggest the benefits of translanguaging in EMI contexts (Duran et al., 2022; Lin & He, 2017; Pun & Tai, 2021). It can be said that EMI studies have adopted a more global concept to accommodate diverse teaching and learning environments. This is further supported by previous scholars (Aizawa & Rose, 2019; Graham et al., 2021), who argue that the use of the term English Medium Instruction implies the flexibility for the instructors to use languages other than English.

The Status Quo of EMI in Indonesia and Other Asian Countries

In contrast to neighboring Southeast Asian nations such as Malaysia, the Philippines, and Singapore, which possess a longstanding tradition of Anglophone-oriented education, Indonesia has a comparatively brief history of employing English Medium Instruction (Lamb et al., 2021). English has been incorporated into Malaysian education since the 18th century (Stephen, 2013). On the other hand, English Medium Instruction has been utilized in Singapore since the establishment of the inaugural English-medium school in the middle of the nineteenth century (Bolton et al., 2017). In Indonesia, English was first integrated at the intermediate level in 60s and became a primary school subject in the early 90s (Bolton et al., 2023). The incorporation of the English language within educational institutions is designated as bilingual classrooms (Nasir, 2015). Moreover, in response to the rising demand for English Medium Instruction, the Indonesian government established the International Standard School system (Rintisan Sekolah Bertaraf Internasional/RSBI) in the early 2000s. However, RSBI was dissolved ten years later because the Constitutional Court deemed it discriminatory, as it favored students who could afford the relatively high tuition fees by Indonesian standards (Bolton et al., 2023; Simbolon, 2021). Over the past decade, despite the absence of formal agreements on the implementation of EMI in Indonesian higher education, the term ‘bilingual class‘ has often been used to refer to EMI (Nasir, 2015). These bilingual classes are implemented to meet the needs of Indonesian university students, with English used as the medium of instruction in both established and incidental courses (Simbolon, 2021).

The implementation of EMI in Indonesia remains in an immature phase (Simbolon, 2018). English Medium Instruction (EMI) was introduced in higher education institutions in Indonesia in 2015, following the development of a curriculum by the Ministry of Research, Technology, and Higher Education (RISTEKDIKTI) that facilitates teaching and learning in both Indonesian and English (Nasir, 2015). Simbolon (2018) conducted a study on the perspectives of stakeholders—including policymakers, lecturers, and students—regarding EMI. The research indicates that stakeholders agree on the importance of English proficiency among university students; however, it suggests that EMI should be implemented only in specific, relevant departments within a university. Bolton et al. (2023) found that students’ relatively high level of English proficiency is a key factor enabling them to cope effectively with the pace of subject learning in EMI courses. Abduh and Rosmaladewi (2018) examined lecturers’ strategies for integrating intercultural values in bilingual programs at an Indonesian university, while Putrawan (2022) analysed translanguaging practices in EFL classrooms. Dewi (2017) employed a mixed-method approach to explore lecturers’ perceptions of EMI. Nevertheless, definitive evidence regarding the research outcomes on EMI in Indonesia remains insufficient.

Several review papers have been initiated in various Asian countries, including China (Peng & Xie, 2021), South Korea (Kang, 2012; Moodie & Nam, 2016), and Japan (Shimauchi, 2018), to provide a more conclusive overview of EMI studies. These reviews aim to present a comprehensive understanding of research on EMI implementation in countries adopting English as a Foreign Language (EFL), based on scholarly findings. However, there remains a lack of a comprehensive decade-long review of studies on EMI in Indonesia, particularly as part of the broader context of EFL-adopting Asian countries. This study aims to conduct a bibliometric mapping analysis and content review of research on the implementation of English Medium Instruction (EMI) in Indonesia over the past decade. The following research questions guide the present study.

RQ 1: What trends have emerged from the previous studies on English Medium Instruction in Indonesia as an EFL-adopting country over the past decade?

a. How is the distribution of publications on EMI?
b. Who were the participants?
c. What research approaches and data collection techniques were used?
d. What education levels were examined?
e. What were the research foci?

RQ 2: What insights can be gained from previous studies?

Methods

Design of this Study

This study employed a mapping analysis method to generate a thorough distribution of research on the implementation of EMI in Indonesia over the last ten years (2012-2022). Meanwhile, a systematic review was conducted to reveal the insights of EMI implementation in Indonesia qualitatively using a replicable search strategy based on the predetermined criteria of inclusion and exclusion. In this sense, PRISMA (The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses) model (2015) was used, aiming to report the synthesis of previous studies systematically. The model was selected since it contains the accepted standard guideline for presenting review results from published papers. This standard guideline helps us escalate the process of quality assurance so that the methodology can be adequately replicable and scientific. Particularly, the PRISMA model was applied in four main stages: (1) search strategy from the information sources or databases; (2) screening, based on the eligibility criteria; (3) final evaluation and inclusion by examining the full-texts; and (4) synthesis of the data items.

Data Sources and Search Strategy

The paper selection process started with determining several keywords such as “EMI” OR “English as Medium of Instruction” AND “Indonesia” OR “Indonesian” OR “Indonesian context”. The keywords were inserted into PublishorPerish (PoP) software. Articles, books, and proceedings written in English or Indonesian were included, except theses. Institutional theses were excluded because most of the results from these cannot be publicly accessible. Additionally, thesis writing has a lower quality of refereeing than other academic papers, raising issues on the validity and reliability of the methodology and results reported in it. Some information was obtained, which comprises: publisher’s name, article URL, ISSN, Vol, Issue. The software generated 980 entries from 2012-2022.

Eligibility Criteria and Selection of Studies

After the metadata were extracted into an Excel file, the papers were sorted out, resulting in the exclusion of 800 titles due to the following reasons.

1. The titles are duplicated.
2. The titles are not focused on the pedagogy of EMI.
3. The titles are about EMI, but not in the Indonesian context.
4. The titles are about the English language, but not specifically related to EMI.

Prior to the next stage, the remaining 180 titles were first analyzed to address the first research question regarding the trends of EMI studies in the Asia context. Then, a double search strategy was applied to ensure the accuracy of the titles by conducting a manual search in Google Scholar and Google. The manual cross-checking strategy in Google Scholar yielded an additional 24 studies, resulting in 204 titles included for final evaluation. To ensure the credibility of the manual cross-checking results, the team conducted a second search cross-checking process, adding fourteen more studies in 2023. The decision to add articles in 2023 is to obtain a more current and comprehensive portrait of research findings. The final inclusion of studies in the first stage was 214 studies. Furthermore, all studies were reviewed again by reading the abstract and the content carefully, excluding 44 papers due to: (1) duplications; (2) not research-based; (3) institutional papers such as theses, which cannot be accessed as well; and (4) Indonesian authors but discussing other countries, Japan, Taiwan, Thailand. Further, as many as 105 titles were excluded due to issues with the quality of the content, such as EMI not as the research focus, L1 use being more focused on teaching English or English language teaching, which was connected to the practice of EMI. The final number of inclusions is 65 papers to proceed to the content analysis stage. See the Appendix for a graphical view of the entire process.

Bibliometric and Content Analysis Procedure

The data generated using the PublishorPerish software were analyzed to identify research trends on the implementation of EMI in the Indonesian context over the last decade. The trends derived from the results include: (1) a trend line of publications on this topic in the last ten years, including those published in 2023; (2) research participants; (3) research approaches and data collection techniques; (4) level of education being examined; and (5) research foci.

Once the bibliometric analysis was done, Williams’ (2015) content analysis process was adopted to analyze the content of each paper. The coding scheme was first formulated based on the coding results of several papers included for the content review by reading and reviewing the entire article, particularly the results and discussion sections. Table 1 below exhibits the samples of coding results in the present study.

Table 1. Samples of coding results

No.	Text	Code	Category
1	When teachers used English instead of Indonesian for classroom instruction, they reported that students were more focused to listen and tried to understand	EMI as a way to make students focused	Perceived roles of EMI
2	Students learn better when they are instructed using mixed languages. Since students are considered still having a limitation on English proficiency, they favor Indonesian language as the medium of instruction	Preference on the use of mixed languages. However, Indonesian is as the MoI is more preferred	The use of English only during teaching and learning process

The coding scheme yielded 184 codes. The codes were further classified into bigger categories to directly address the second research question about what themes of findings emerge from the previous studies. The coding scheme was then used to analyze the rest of the papers reviewed during the entire content analysis process.  The analysis results were then cross-checked to ensure data credibility. Insights from both content analysis results were utilized to inform the implications of the status and role of English as a medium of instruction in Indonesia as part of the EFL-adopting countries in Asia in the coming years.

Results and Discussion

RQ 1: Trends and insights from the previous studies

1a: The distribution of publications on EMI in Indonesia

Figure 1 exhibits the trend line of publications on EMI in Indonesia in the last ten years (n=65 papers). The results generally revealed that the number of papers published was increasing in the last three years.

Figure 1. Trends of research on EMI in Indonesia over the past decade (2012-2023)

The trend in EMI (English as a Medium of Instruction) publications in Indonesia from 2012 to 2023, as illustrated in the figure above, demonstrates considerable fluctuations prior to 2020, reflecting a lack of consistent upward interest among Indonesian scholars. From 2012 to 2019, the number of publications varied, indicating inconsistent levels of research attention. However, a significant and steady rise in EMI research has been observed since 2020, reaching a peak of 10 publications in 2022 and 13 papers in 2023. This notable increase in EMI-related research over the past two years highlights a growing interest among Indonesian educational stakeholders in contributing to the discourse on the quality of internationalization in education. Such an increase also underscores the importance of English Medium Instruction (EMI) among higher education stakeholders in Indonesia, aligning with broader objectives to enhance the global competitiveness and reputation of their institutions. Although there is no explicit regulation governing the implementation of EMI at the higher education level, the Minister of Research, Technology, and Higher Education of Indonesia has encouraged the adoption of “Bilingual Classes,” which are understood as EMI (Nasir, 2015). The absence of clear government regulations regarding EMI implementation in schools and higher education institutions may contribute to the inconsistent levels of scholarly attention observed over the years.

1b: The research participants involved

Figure 2 below exhibits the distribution of research participants involved in the previous studies.

Figure 2. Distribution of research participants in the papers

The bibliometric analysis of 65 papers on EMI also reveals several groups of participants involved in empirical inquiries over the past decade. Teachers, students, and administrative staff were the three academic roles identified in previous studies. A substantial group of 32 papers (49% of the total 65 papers) analyzed both teachers and students as participants (e.g., Nasution & Fithriani, 2023; Pramerta et al., 2023; Sukarni et al., 2020), reflecting a thorough examination of shared experiences within EMI contexts. The number of publications on EMI involving teachers (e.g., Endrayanto, 2021; Muttaqin et al., 2022; Sudana et al., 2023; Syakira, 2020) is slightly higher than that involving only students as research participants (e.g., Aritonang, 2014; Indrawati, 2019; Mukminin et al., 2019; Muniroh et al., 2022; Simbolon, 2023; Ulfah & Basthomi, 2024). Only one study, conducted by Haryanto (2013), included administrative staff, highlighting the dominant emphasis on teachers and students in EMI research, but revealing a notable knowledge gap from the administrative perspectives on EMI. It is not surprising that students and teachers have become the most frequently involved sources of data in the last ten years, as they are the immediate stakeholders of EMI.

1c: The research approaches and data collection techniques

Figure 3 demonstrates the findings regarding the research approaches identified in the datasets, along with the data collection techniques.

Figure 3. The research approaches and data collection techniques

The research approach and data collection techniques predominantly employed qualitative methods (e.g., Artini, 2013; Floris, 2014; Hendryanti & Kusmayanti, 2018; Lestari & Mutiaraningrum, 2023; Pritasari et al., 2019) to gather information about EMI from stakeholders through surveys, interviews, document analyses, and various other techniques, including qualitative surveys, interviews, and observations (e.g., Aritonang, 2014; Hamied & Lengkanawati, 2018; Mukminin et al., 2019; Muniroh et al., 2022). Several authors (e.g., Simbolon, 2023) employed quantitative approaches to examine EMI, enabling generalizations based on respondents’ feedback. A total of thirteen studies (20% of 65 studies) adopted both qualitative and quantitative approaches (e.g., Dewi, 2017; Haryanto, 2012; Puspitasari & Ishak, 2023; Ulfah & Basthomi, 2024) to enrich their data and gain a deeper understanding of EMI. A few studies (e.g., Sudana et al., 2023) employed mixed methods to further explore the complexities involved in EMI implementation. In addition, the use of various data collection techniques likely enhanced the robustness of the research conclusions.

1d: Education levels being examined

Figure 4 showcases the levels of education being examined in the previous studies on EMI over the past decade. The results identified four categories: primary, secondary, higher education, and multiple education levels.

Figure 4. Education levels being examined

Almost fifty percent of the papers examined in this study focused on the implementation and development of English Medium Instruction (EMI) policies and practices within higher education institutions (e.g., Simbolon, 2023; Sudana et al., 2023; Sukarni et al., 2020), indicating a strong emphasis on exploring stakeholders’ experiences and outcomes. These studies covered a range of disciplines, including Accounting, Business, and Natural Sciences, among others. Secondary education also received significant attention (e.g., Aritonang, 2014; Indrawati, 2019; Mukminin et al., 2019; Muniroh et al., 2022), reflecting an ongoing focus on adolescent learners in the EMI context. Meanwhile, primary education received limited scholarly attention, resulting in a lack of a comprehensive portrait of EMI implementation for young learners in Indonesia. Several other studies addressed EMI across multiple educational levels, such as primary and secondary schools (e.g., Hamid et al., 2013; Maya & Iskandar, 2022). The historical development of international-standard schools in Indonesia, particularly with the introduction of RSBI in 2003, may have contributed to this trend (Bolton et al., 2023; Simbolon, 2021). In certain Indonesian higher education institutions, English is used as a medium of instruction in bilingual classes. This practice has led to the establishment of English Medium Instruction (EMI) programs, which are now formally regulated. Notable examples include the International Program of Science Education at Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia, the Program Sarjana Kelas Internasional at Universitas Indonesia, and the International Undergraduate Program at Universitas Gadjah Mada.

1e: Research foci identified over the past decade

Figure 5 below exhibits the research foci identified in the existing publications. The research foci are taken from the keywords in the titles and abstracts reviewed.

Figure 5. The distribution of research foci identified in the previous studies

The figure above indicates that academic papers regarding EMI in the Indonesian context primarily focus on examining the stakeholders’ perceptions/voices/views, including students, teachers, and administrative staff (48% of 65 papers) (e.g., Despitasari, 2021; Ernawati et al., 2021; Haryanto, 2013; Syakira, 2020). It is strengthened by the fact that students and teachers have become the most frequently involved sources of data over the past decade, as they are the immediate stakeholders of EMI (Akşit & Kahvecioğlu, 2022); in essence, they embody the micro-level stakeholders (Wu, 2023). The stakeholders’ perceptions and voices are mostly focused on the roles of EMI, the readiness for implementing the EMI program, based on the required capacities, and the concerns with EMI. Only one study (Haryanto, 2013) was identified that explores the teachers’ and administrators’ perspectives, leaving out questions on how the faculty staff perceives the EMI program. Around 18% of the studies discussed the EMI implementation process (e.g., Al Hakim, 2021; Hamid et al., 2013; Kusmayanti et al., 2022; Lestari & Mutiaraningrum, 2023; Muttaqin & Chuang, 2022a&b; Muttaqin & Ida, 2015; Oktaviani, 2019; Sudiatmika et al., 2017; Sultan et al., 2012; Walkinshaw et al., 2017), particularly the emerging issues and challenges. Slightly different from the second research focus, several papers (17%) report on case studies of EMI in specific locations (e.g., Coleman et al., 2023; Dewi, 2017; Ernawati et al., 2021; Floris, 2014; Haryanto, 2012; Pramerta et al., 2023; Zacharias, 2013). Research addressing the case studies of EMI analyzed instructional approaches to EMI, institutional support, and curriculum design for the EMI program.

Further, the strategies applied by the teachers to maximize the instructional and communication process received fairly little attention in the data set (8%) (e.g., Hartati, 2013; Lestari & Mutiaraningrum, 2023; Muttaqin & Ida, 2015), followed by research topics about students’ higher-order skills and achievements in the EMI classrooms (5%) (e.g., Hutabarat, 2015; Muniroh et al., 2022; Muttaqin et al., 2022). Similarly, the students’ motivation and confidence were identified only in two studies (3%) (Aritonang, 2014; Sultan et al., 2012), followed by the program evaluation (3%) (Qibthiyyah & Djamaluddin, 2015; Qomariah et al., 2022), and teachers’ professional development (3%) (Sudiatmika et al., 2017; Ulfah & Basthomi, 2024). Scientific inquiry regarding how the language curriculum is reframed due to the implementation of EMI programs was scarce enough in the existing literature (Widodo, 2016). This indicates a scarcity of research focus, probing into the incorporation of higher-order thinking skills in EMI classrooms and the strategies applied by teachers in administering EMI programs.

RQ 2: Insights from the Findings of Existing Studies

This section aims to discuss six major themes of findings: expectations on EMI program, readiness to implement EMI, perceived roles of EMI, strategies for implementing EMI program, teachers’ professional development, and emerging concerns with EMI. The discussion of each theme is based on the findings that emerged from the previous studies, which will be further elaborated with the existing theories.

Expectations of stakeholders on an EMI program. The present study focuses on the immediate stakeholders: teachers and students. Students expect that English Medium Instruction (EMI) will enhance both their linguistic and disciplinary skills (Muttaqin & Chuang, 2022b). They also believe that EMI fosters international friendships and promotes awareness of intercultural issues and academic English, which are seen as valuable for building global networks for future employment or education.

For teachers, EMI is expected to support students’ English acquisition during instruction while also enhancing their teaching practices (Coleman et al., 2023). The program is anticipated to encourage collaboration between content teachers and language tutors through team teaching, as well as provide training to strengthen pedagogical and communicative competence. According to Handayani et al. (2022), teachers recognize that such collaboration positively impacts EMI implementation, especially for tasks requiring a certain level of English proficiency. As a result, teachers expect training in classroom discourse, effective teaching methods, and strategies for contextualizing subject matter (Handayani et al., 2022).

Readiness to implement EMI.  In addition to the previously mentioned expectations, it is essential to understand how stakeholders assess their competence and confidence in engaging with English Medium Instruction (EMI) prior to the implementation of an EMI program. The findings highlight the necessity of establishing stringent requirements for both educators and learners (Artini, 2013; Handayani et al., 2022; Muttaqin et al., 2022; Setoningsih, 2022). Teachers are required to demonstrate a minimum level of English competence, evidenced by obtaining a certificate from an English proficiency test with a specified minimum score, as well as possessing experience in teaching international curricula. A similar language proficiency requirement is expected to be implemented for students (Endrayanto, 2021; Setoningsih, 2022). Muttaqin et al. (2022) and Dafouz and Smit (2020) reinforced that achieving a minimum TOEFL score can significantly contribute to students’ academic achievement within the context of English Medium Instruction (EMI).

Teachers and students exhibit a moderate level of confidence in using the English language within EMI classrooms. Teachers hold conflicting perceptions; although they feel confident using English for subject instruction, they occasionally struggle with pronunciation (Artini, 2013). Handayani et al. (2022) identify another challenge, noting that teachers perceive a lack of mastery over technical terms. Some teachers also report that their English proficiency is inadequate, indicating a lack of confidence in using English for instructional purposes. Teachers express varying perceptions regarding students’ English language skills. Nur et al. (2023) assert that teachers are confident in students’ abilities to read English materials, understand exam instructions, and participate in group work; however, they remain uncertain regarding students’ capacity to comprehend spoken explanations.

Teachers’ perceptions of students’ capabilities are validated by the students themselves, who reported confidence in their reading skills (Pritasari et al., 2019) and in their examination results (Muttaqin & Ida, 2015). The perception that students struggle to comprehend explanations is supported by a previous study (Pritasari et al., 2019), which found that listening is the students’ weakest skill compared to speaking and reading. Student respondents explained that understanding English lectures during ongoing sessions is particularly challenging, even though they find it easier to follow lectures in English subject classes. Participants in Pritasari et al.’s (2019) study also reported low confidence in writing, attributing this to the complexities involved in selecting appropriate vocabulary and maintaining grammatical accuracy. Students’ confidence level, therefore, can affect students’ academic progress. This confidence is influenced by various factors, including gender, prior educational background, duration of EMI learning, and parents’ educational attainment (Muttaqin & Chuang, 2022a; Muttaqin et al., 2022).

Perceived roles of EMI. The implementation of English Medium Instruction (EMI) in the Indonesian education system has elicited diverse responses from stakeholders, particularly concerning their perceptions of the roles of EMI. Teachers generally perceive EMI as a method to enhance student focus, motivation to improve English skills and academic competence, consistency in applying the four English language skills within subject courses, and increased cultural awareness. The role of EMI in motivating students to improve their academic competence is supported by Qomariah et al. (2022), whose research found that the EMI program at the school level was considered considerably effective, as students were able to increase both their academic achievements and skills. Teachers also report that the use of EMI encourages students to listen attentively to the lecturer to understand the material effectively (Aritonang, 2014). Similarly, Al Hakim (2021), Hutabarat (2015), and Nur et al. (2023) assert that EMI motivates students to improve their English proficiency and develop all four language skills. Another perceived role of EMI is to sustain students’ motivation for future career development (Lamb et al., 2021).

Such teachers’ views are supported by the student respondents, who reported that EMI facilitates the development of academic and comprehension skills (Muttaqin & Ida, 2015), improves English proficiency (Nasution & Fithriani, 2023; Setoningsih, 2022; Syakira, 2020), and boosts linguistic self-confidence (Wu et al., 2024). Since students use English in nearly all learning activities, they can develop cognitive and academic skills using English, including reasoning, planning, and problem solving. EMI is also regarded as beneficial for students’ learning and international career advancement (Despitasari, 2021).

However, a study by Coleman et al. (2023) reveals intriguing perspectives from the survey. The findings indicate that the primary motivations for implementing EMI are linked to its potential to enhance quality and international reputation through international accreditation, as corroborated in the British Council report (Lamb et al., 2021). These efforts may be associated with the increasing competition among higher education institutions (HEIs) on a global scale (Simbolon, 2021). This perspective may not be entirely accurate, as Coleman et al. (2023) point out that international accreditation bodies, such as AQAS, do not explicitly require EMI to be implemented in the teaching and learning process. We posit that the decision to implement EMI in secondary or higher education institutions within the Indonesian context is primarily influenced by the status of English as a global lingua franca. The adoption of EMI aims to promote international education, attract international students, and ultimately contribute to the institution’s global reputation and recognition.

Strategies for implementing an EMI program

The content analysis reveals three primary points: the use of English and other languages in classrooms, the instructional methods applied, and the incorporation of teaching aids. The decision to implement English as the medium of instruction does not require the teachers and students to communicate exclusively in English at all times. As a result, the exclusive use of English in the teaching and learning process has only been partially agreed upon (Nur et al., 2023; Setoningsih, 2022; Sudiatmika et al., 2017). Many teachers report that they do not follow a strict monolingual approach when teaching subjects through English Medium Instruction (EMI); instead, they draw on the potential of their first language or mother tongue. While some participants consented to a full monolingual approach (Endrayanto, 2021), the incorporation of the Indonesian language in EMI classrooms is considered beneficial for preventing misunderstandings (Muttaqin & Ida, 2015) during lecture delivery. The use of languages other than English aligns with the concept of translanguaging. Translanguaging is acknowledged as a beneficial approach for improving the teaching and learning process, resulting in better retention among students (Siegel, 2023), including in the context of English Medium Instruction (EMI) (Pun & Tai, 2021). Although English can positively impact students’ language skills and understanding of academic content, shifting to the students’ first language becomes crucial when dealing with more complex materials (Setoningsih, 2022).

English is commonly employed for instructional purposes, including providing examples, explaining new concepts, clarifying assignments and classroom policies, and facilitating discussions (e.g., Hartati, 2013; Pramerta et al., 2023). It also serves transactional functions, such as formulating questions and responses and understanding disciplinary terms. Contextual uses of additional languages have also been observed—for instance, Indonesian is used for clarification, Arabic for prayer before class, and students’ native languages for humor. In a separate study, Pritasari et al. (2019) found that students used Indonesian during class discussions and occasionally during Q&A sessions as a follow-up activity. They tend to use English during lessons or examinations (Muttaqin & Ida, 2015). This evidence suggests that although English is used in educational contexts, the first language continues to play an important role in maintaining interpersonal relationships and facilitating contextual activities.

An intriguing observation regarding the use of English and other languages in EMI programs at the school level indicates that mathematics teachers tend to use English more frequently than their counterparts in other science disciplines. Previous studies (Artini, 2013; Sudiatmika et al., 2017) report that Biology and Chemistry teachers often employ translanguaging. Setoningsih’s (2022) study provides a clear example, as students argue that Mathematics is better taught in the Indonesian language because the subject requires higher-order processing, application, and mastery of formulas. The decision to employ full English is largely influenced by the teacher’s level of English proficiency and the complexity of the subject matter. For example, Qomariah et al. (2022), through interviews, found that teachers in higher education contexts still use other languages such as Indonesian, Arabic, Malay, or Javanese in their instruction, despite the predominant use of English. One key reason for using mixed languages in EMI classrooms is to enhance students’ comprehension of the lessons, particularly the core concepts being taught. Zacharias (2013) notes that inappropriate word choices can lead to comprehension difficulties, potentially hindering students’ performance in examinations. In such cases, using only English may pose significant challenges, as students may struggle to absorb the material delivered by their teachers. This issue might also be linked to the teachers’ concerns about their students’ English proficiency (Nur et al., 2023; Pritasari et al., 2019) and their ability to comprehend explanations.

Regarding the instructional techniques used by the teachers, previous research (Artini, 2013; Lestari & Mutiaraningrum, 2023; Sudiatmika et al., 2017) indicates that teachers employ a variety of instructional techniques and approaches to facilitate the planned teaching and learning process. Since EMI is not solely about using English to teach subjects, several meaningful approaches are adopted, including problem-based, cooperative, experimental, and contextual teaching. To maintain students’ engagement during lessons, teachers maximize the use of communicative techniques, such as language switching (as mentioned earlier), pausing, non-linguistic resources like gestures, and methods for clarification and comprehension checking. Evidence from Lestari and Mutiaraningrum (2023) supports this, showing that Biology and Primary Education lecturers use various speech acts, including assertive, directive, expressive, and commissive. Assertive speech acts are employed to convey content and engage students, while motivation is fostered using expressions of gratitude and compliments.

Additionally, access to the learning materials is primarily provided in the English language. The Indonesian language is used by teachers to offer examples and clarify concepts. Teachers practice delivering lessons in English to help students become familiar with the language prior to class discussions, despite the inevitable vocabulary limitations that students may face when trying to comprehend the materials (Coleman et al., 2023). Another important finding relates to the teaching aids used by teachers (Muttaqin & Chuang, 2022b; Zacharias, 2013). The analysis highlights the incorporation and integration of ICT tools to maximize students’ learning processes. These tools can be integrated into a self-access centre, allowing students to independently enhance their knowledge outside of regular class hours.

Teachers’ professional development

The findings in this case are drawn from schools (Aritonang, 2014; Setoningsih, 2022; Sudiatmika et al., 2017). Teachers reported participating in scientific forums, workshops, or international competitions to improve their English proficiency. Reading English-language articles from scientific journals also serves as an additional strategy for professional development. Consequently, these self-development initiatives contribute to greater language awareness, emphasizing the importance of possessing adequate English skills and the responsibility to support students in their learning. Alongside the intrinsic PD strategies, it is crucial to consider socio-contextual events (Aritonang, 2014). Positive feedback from school staff and opportunities for collaboration with other teachers can enhance teachers’ confidence in managing EMI classrooms. Another form of support may involve providing language assistance in collaboration with agencies or institutions that offer professional language tutors. Such support not only improves lesson delivery but also promotes more effective communication with students. Studies conducted at higher education institutions indicate that faculty members require training in English Medium Instruction (EMI) to strengthen their language and communication skills (Ulfah & Basthomi, 2024). This training is essential for improving the management of teaching and learning processes in EMI classrooms, ultimately leading to more favorable outcomes in students’ academic performance.

Emerging concerns related to EMI

The review results identify three primary concerns for teachers regarding the implementation of EMI programs: the cultural and linguistic transition, insufficient program socialization, and inadequate institutional support. Teachers indicate that EMI may limit students’ opportunities to communicate in their native language within the school environment (Hutabarat, 2015). Schools that adopt English as their medium of instruction often encounter a stigma of exclusivity within their surrounding environments and exhibit a disconnect from the local context (Hutabarat, 2015). This may lead to a cultural and linguistic shift in which English is perceived as more essential than the first language for accessing quality education, as also noted by Sah and Li (2018) in the context of Nepal. Despitasari (2021) presents a contrasting view, suggesting that EMI may threaten students’ cultural and linguistic identity. Nevertheless, students at private higher education institutions perceive EMI as a valuable element of their identity as both local and global citizens. Additional concerns relate to the process of engaging with EMI-mediated lessons, including difficulties in comprehension and responding to questions (Muttaqin & Ida, 2015), as well as challenges in expanding essential vocabulary and maintaining pace with instructors (Setoningsih, 2022).

Another concern relates to the lack of institutional socialization prior to the implementation of EMI courses. This situation may lead teachers to adopt varied perspectives on EMI, thereby influencing their classroom practices. Participants in Zacharias’ (2013) study express concern that school principals appear hazy in facilitating relevant socialization efforts. In response, teachers address this issue through the application of technology. They perceive that there is insufficient institutional support for enhancing their professional capacity to manage EMI classes effectively. In the study by Qomariah et al. (2022), school teachers report receiving no special training or specific guidelines regarding standard procedures for conducting the teaching and learning process, even though the school has invited native English-speaking tutors from non-formal education institutions such as English First. Teachers at the university level also highlight the lack of adequate institutional incentives to participate in training courses (Lamb et al., 2021). They aim to strengthen teaching strategies to address students’ challenges in comprehending the materials, maintaining motivation, and enhancing the overall learning process.

From the students’ experiences, three major concerns are identified: insufficient English proficiency, psychological challenges, including foreign language anxiety, and learning constraints. As they are learning subject matter content, difficulties in understanding disciplinary vocabularies are inevitable. In this context, students prefer to ask teachers to repeat or re-explain what has been said, or they use mobile technologies to translate texts during reading activities (Muttaqin & Chuang, 2022b). This also presents challenges for teachers, who question whether to prioritize content over language (Hendryanti & Kusmayanti, 2018).

Another consequence of insufficient English skills is the occurrence of speaking anxiety or issues with speech fluency (Pritasari et al., 2019), as well as feelings of being burdened when responding to questions posed by teachers (Floris, 2014). Students report that their teachers address these challenges by providing equal speaking opportunities in class and allowing group work (Kusmayanti et al., 2022). When delivering English presentations, students often choose to translate the content into Indonesian or use simpler English expressions, especially when the teachers are native English speakers.

The third concern relates to the difficulty in comprehending teachers’ English, which may stem from incorrect grammar (Muttaqin & Chuang, 2022b) or L1 accents (Pritasari et al., 2019). Students also express concerns about the excessive workload assigned by their teachers. A monotonous teaching style can further reduce students’ interest, particularly when traditional lecturing dominates classroom activities. In a study conducted by Hendryanti and Kusmayanti (2018), students indicated that the teaching strategies were less engaging. In this context, observing peers’ teaching practices is considered beneficial for increasing the variety of teaching strategies before class preparation, as noted by one of the lecturers in their study.

Implications from the Current Findings

The current insights from previous studies in the Indonesian context may have implications for expanding scientific investigations into the complex nature of EMI in the EFL-adopting countries. As compared to other Asian EFL-adopting countries such as Japan, South Korea, China, Thailand, and Vietnam, the Indonesian government has yet to formulate a clear and explicit regulation for implementing EMI programs at schools and higher education institutions (HEIs), despite the long-standing encouragement for the internationalization of education in HEIs (Lamb et al., 2021). At the institutional level, the review findings may inform policy development related to teacher collaboration, student support, and curriculum design. The implementation of team teaching between subject teachers and language tutors could be further explored to enhance students’ comprehension and academic writing skills. Cross-fertilization with EAP-informed corrective feedback in EMI classroom settings (Galloway & Rose, 2022) may contribute to effective language support mechanisms for students (e.g., Galloway & Ruegg, 2020, in Japan and China). Additionally, investigating the impact of EMI in under-explored disciplines such as Accounting (e.g., Dafouz & Camacho-Miñano, 2016) in HEIs can provide valuable insights for curriculum adjustments.

At the classroom level, the current insights highlight the importance of teacher professionalism in implementing effective instructional strategies, enhancing student engagement, and adapting assessment methods to the multilingual nature of Indonesian classrooms. Among various approaches, translanguaging has gained prominence as a strategy for creating more effective EMI environments by incorporating students’ first languages into subject learning (Lu et al., 2023; Siegel, 2023). Studies from Turkey (e.g., Kırkgöz et al., 2023) and Italy (e.g., Dalziel & Guarda, 2021) have shown that translanguaging can serve multiple functions across disciplines in higher education contexts. Given this, empirical research into the design and implementation of teacher training programs, aimed at enhancing professional development, is essential (e.g., Cañado, 2020). Such programs should prioritize the development of pedagogical competencies that support both subject-specific instruction and language acquisition. Additionally, the dynamic nature of EFL students’ motivation in EMI settings has been identified as a factor influencing classroom success (e.g., Li, 2023). Therefore, examining the interplay of mediating variables in EMI courses is crucial for promoting more effective outcomes in students’ disciplinary and linguistic development.

Conclusion

This study presents the results of a mapping analysis and a systematic review of studies on English Medium Instruction (EMI) within the Indonesian context, situated among EFL-adopting countries in Asia. The findings indicate a growing interest in exploring stakeholders’ perspectives and practices of EMI at the secondary and higher education levels. However, primary education has received little attention from scholars. Similar to other Asian countries that adopt English as a Foreign Language, EMI is viewed as a strategy to enhance the international recognition of institutions, thereby attracting more international students to pursue secondary or higher education in Indonesia. The immediate stakeholders of EMI partially agree with the monolingual approach to teaching subject matter, which allows for the use of translanguaging. In addition, teachers employ various instructional methods to optimize the teaching and learning process. Nevertheless, concerns remain, particularly regarding the English language proficiency of local teachers in delivering subject content and the inadequate socialization necessary for the effective implementation of EMI programs.

The findings offer insights into research trends on English Medium Instruction (EMI) within the Indonesian context over the past decade. In light of these insights and current concerns, future research agendas can further explore the complex dimensions of EMI, including the intersection of EMI and English for Academic Purposes (EAP), as well as the implications of continuous professional development initiatives for educators and their impact within both school and higher education contexts.

About the Authors

Arif Husein Lubis is a lecturer from the Faculty of Language and Literature Education, Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia, Bandung, West Java. In addition to teaching, he is actively involved in professional associations concerning Teaching English as a Foreign Language in Indonesia and Applied Linguistics. His research interests center on genre analysis, English for instructional and academic purposes, and technology integration in language learning. ORCID ID: 0000-0002-5457-4777

Reza Anggriyashati Adara is a lecturer and researcher from Universitas Islam 45 Bekasi. Her research interests range from motivation, demotivation, and learning technology in the context of English as a foreign language in Indonesia. ORCID ID: 0000-0001-7629- 9377

To Cite this Article

Lubis, A. H., & Adara, R. A. (2025). A mapping analysis and systematic review of studies (2012-2023) on English medium instruction in an EFL-adopting Asian country: insights and Implications. Teaching English as a Second Language Electronic Journal (TESL-EJ), 29(3). https://doi.org/10.55593/ej.29115a8

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Appendix

Paper selection process using the PRISMA model

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